Heaven & Earth EDITED BY JENNY ALBANI AND EUGENIA CHALKIA HELLENIC REPUBLIC MINISTRY OF CULTURE AND SPORTS                  ATHENS 2013 BENAKI MUSEUM The Companion Volume is issued in conjunction with the exhibition Heaven and Earth: Art of Byzantium from Greek Collections, held at the National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., from October 6, 2013, through March 2, 2014, and at the J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, from April 9 through August 25, 2014. The exhibition was organized by the Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports, Athens, with the collaboration of the Benaki Museum, Athens, and in association with the National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C., and the J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles Editors JENNY ALBANI, EUGENIA CHALKIA Research assistants ELENI CHARCHARE, ANTONIS TSAKALOS, SOTIRIS FOTAKIDIS Bibliography VASSILIKI P. KLOTSA Glossary ELENI CHARCHARE, ANTONIS TSAKALOS Translators from Greek FREYA EVENSON VALERIE NUNN (Essay by I. Anagnostakis) DEBORAH KAZAZI (Forewards, Essays by A. Tourta, E. Kourkoutidou-Nikolaidou, E. Drakopoulou, Ch. Koilakou) Translator from French ALEXANDRA BONFIONTE-WARREN (Essay by C. Abadie-Reynal) Text editor RUSSELL STOCKMAN Designer FOTINI SAKELLARI Photographers VELISSARIOS VOUTSAS, ELPIDA BOUBALOU Map design PENELOPE MATSOUKA, ANAVASI EDITIONS Color separations PANAYOTIS VOUVELIS Printing ADAM EDITIONS-PERGAMOS Financial Management DIMITRIS DROUNGAS Printed on Fedrigony 150 gsm SPONSOR The exhibition’s international tour is made possible through OPAP S.A.’s major funding. Financial support is also provided by the A.G. Leventis Foundation. The exhibition is supported by an indemnity from the Federal Council on the Arts and the Humanities Published by the Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports and the Benaki Museum, Athens © 2013 Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports © 2013 Benaki Museum All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or information retrieval system, without permission from the publishers. ISBN 978-960-476-132-6 (HC) ISBN 978-960-476-133-3 (PBC) Jacket / Cover illustration The city of Jerusalem, detail from the Entry into Jerusalem. Wall painting, circa 1428. Mistra, katholikon of the Pantanassa Monastery. Frontispiece Backdrop, detail from the zone of the martyrs. Dome mosaic, late 4th–6th century. Thessalonike, Rotunda. |4| Chapter [2 ] RURAL GREECE IN THE BYZANTINE PERIOD IN LIGHT OF NEW ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE EUGENIA GEROUSI T he archaeological map of Greece has become denser over the past two decades, thanks to the results of archaeological research carried out during large- and small-scale public works, as well as smaller private archaeological projects. Among these results finds dating to the Byzantine period have enriched our knowledge of life in Greece’s cities and countryside throughout the Byzantine era. Modern roads generally follow ancient routes, and thus, the excavations taking place today in extensive Fig. 18 | Kiln of the Late Byzantine workshop at the Tsikare site, Thessaly. areas of the modern and ancient countryside create an opportunity for a first look at the important, though largely unknown, aspect of the rural countryside during Late Antiquity and the Byzantine period. Sites with way stations or inns, country villas, cemeteries, settlements, baths, and larger or smaller industrial installations such as wine and olive presses and ceramic workshops, add to the list of already known sites and aid in the reconstruction of the map of Byzantine Greece (fig. 19). Fig. 17 | Aerial view of the excavation at the Vale of Tempe next to the Athens–Thessalonike highway under construction. | 31 | Fig. 19 | Map of Greece showing Via Egnatia, new highways, and excavation sites. | 32 | uring the long history of the Byzantine Empire, in addition to the sea routes, of which Constantinople was the center due to its exceptional geographical location, the old, well-organized network of Roman overland routes was also used, having been adapted to fit the demands of the time.1 Via Egnatia, the large Roman artery traversing the Balkan Peninsula from the eastern Adriatic to Byzantium, continued to play a decisive role in the Byzantine Empire, and later in the Ottoman Empire.2 At regular intervals along its length in Roman times there were supply stations for horses (mutationes), inns (mansiones), and towns or cities that provided for longer stays (stationes civitas). During major construction on the modern Egnatia Hodos in the 1990s an archaeological excavation in the valley of ancient Mygdonia revealed a complex of buildings identified as a way station3 (fig. 20a). The long and narrow valley, just past Rentina Pass, which spreads between the Bertiskos mountain range and Kerdyllio Mountain and the Strymonian Gulf, was even in the most ancient times an area of particular strategic importance. Thus it was always the area through which the east–west road was run, as it continues to be today. The building complex, with an apse on one side and a large interior court, was the result of additions and renovations to an original, smaller building dating to the fourth century A.D. The building was used most intensely from the middle of the fifth century to the middle of the sixth century A.D., after which it was abandoned. The complex, in the form in which it was revealed during the excavation, is made up of many rooms, several of which had a second story. It featured a large oven for food preparation, a well-organized drainage system, and a bath with hypocaust heating system in the court. The inn’s location was fairly isolated; protected by its elevation on a high saddle, it afforded a commanding view of the valley and the Via Egnatia below. Various roads began at Via Egnatia and led south. One of these, Kyria Hodos, which is mentioned in the Tabula Peutingeriana, began in Thessalonike and ran south along the coast toward Thessaly.4 It passed Katerine and Platamon and traversed the Vale of Tempe to the Larissa plain. Previous research had found along this primary route the foundations of a twelfth-century inn at the Kitros Castle. The fortified city of Kitros, founded in the Justinian period on the site most likely identified as the ancient acropolis of Pydna, was substantially improved and developed in the tenth century, after the turbulent period of Slavic invasions (6th–7th centuries). Its harbor acquired commercial traffic, as confirmed by finds such as the hypocaust bath and the inn. The inn itself (fig. 20b) exhibits two building phases; initially, in the eleventh century, it was smaller and made up of a rectangular hall with a roofed D porch and a semi-enclosed space housing stables, while later, in the middle of the twelfth century, other spaces were added.5 Recent construction on the highway connecting Thessalonike and Athens (PATHE/Patras—Athens—Thessalonike—Euzonoi) presented an opportunity for excavations in 2008 in the Vale of Tempe, an area for which there were only historical sources and travelers’ descriptions (fig. 17). In the lower foothills at the western exit of the pass at Tempe, a long, narrow building was found with three internal divisions, and which could be identified as an inn6 (figs. 20c, 21). The building lies at a distance of some 33 feet from the modern road, which follows the path of the ancient one, and is oriented precisely toward it. Numismatic evidence dates the main phase of the building to the period following the reign of the emperor Basil I (867–86). In form the building is similar to that of the first phase of the Byzantine inn at Pydna.7 According to the excavator, the site of the inn can be identified as the mutatio Thuris, one of the smaller supply stations mentioned in the Tabula Peutingeriana and other Roman travel documents, as it is situated halfway between two main supply stations—mansio Stenas at the eastern exit of the Vale of Tempe and mansio Olympu at the western one—a distance of 7½ miles (12 km). Furthermore, the site of the inn is precisely at the exit from the extremely narrow part of the valley, where there would have been urgent need for a rest stop.8 It is interesting to note that the area is known as “Inn of Kokkona,” from a nearby Ottoman inn that is known from travelers’ accounts from the Ottoman period, although not preserved today. Another important road connecting north and south followed the coast along the eastern flanks of Mt. Ossa. Alexios Komnenos chose to travel this road in the spring of 1083 to avoid the guarded pass at Tempe, during his campaign against the Normans who had besieged Larissa.9 Archaeological research in the wider region began in 2000 and continues today, within the framework of improvements to the roadways and primarily, the large project to rehabilitate Lake Karla, which had dried up in 1962, creating huge environmental problems. New archaeological evidence for the installations and activities taking place in the area from prehistoric up until recent times has been gathered through this research. Here, too, the Byzantine road followed the route of the ancient one, which was repeatedly used by armies coming down from the north.10 The impressive castle of Velika dominates the seaside area of Meliboia,11 where there was a dense cluster of Early Christian monuments. The castle, which covers 21 stremma (5.25 acres), is being revealed as clearing projects over the past few years have removed the vegetation that covered both the fortifications and the interior. The castle appears to date to the Early Byzantine | 33 | a b c Fig. 20 | Ground plans of the inns in ancient Mygdonia (after Adam-Veleni 2003), Pydna (after Marki 1991), and the Vale of Tempe. Fig. 21 | Panoramic view of the excavations in the Vale of Tempe with the Middle Byzantine inn and adjacent church of the same period. | 34 | period, without later interventions. Many sections of the fortifications have been revealed, as well as storage areas for agricultural products with large storage jars in situ, workshops, a three-aisle basilica, and sections of a densely constructed settlement of the Early Byzantine period, which had also not suffered later interventions. Many of the settlement’s buildings are preserved to a height of more than 6½ feet (2 m). In the Middle Byzantine period settlement becomes denser in Kissabos and near Lake Karla. Workshop installations were located in Kissabos, the Mount of Cells (“Oros ton Kellion”) according to Anna Komnene, relating to the presence of numerous monastic communities in the area. One such installation is the impressively preserved twelfth-century wine press at Paliouria of Meliboia,12 near Byzantine Tarsanas.13 Archaeological research has uncovered small settlements densely arranged in the area around Lake Karla dating to the Early Christian and especially the Middle Byzantine periods, with workshop installations, such as ironworks, pottery workshops, and spaces for storing and processing agricultural products14 (fig. 22). A general characteristic of the agricultural economy of all periods of the Byzantine state is the predominance of multicultivation.15 Of the various agricultural crops, cultivation of the olive and the vine, with favorable local soil and climate conditions, has been one of the most important pursuits of Greece’s rural population through the ages, and an important factor in a region’s development and prosperity. Excavations at the fortified bishop’s complex at Louloudies near Kitros, undertaken in the 1980s during the construction of the new rail line linking Athens and Thessalonike, brought to light sixth-century industrial installations for the processing of wine and oil16 (fig. 23). The installations of the olive press and the winery were complete, as they included large reservoirs, wine presses, collection tanks, olive mills of the trapetum and mola olearia type, as well as storage areas with numerous storage jars preserved in situ.17 Due to their size, these workshops have been characterized as industrial units that served the needs of local farmers who did not have the necessary processing equipment themselves.18 A large agricultural installation for wine production was discovered in 2008 in Boeotia, 2 miles east of ancient Ambrossos (modern Distomo), during the construction of a large natural-gas pipeline near the modern road (fig. 24). The modern road itself must follow a course not very different from that of the ancient one traveled by Pausanias in the second century A.D.19 The excavated section of the winery includes a press-reservoir, collection tank,20 and storage and other workshop spaces dating to the fourth–sixth centuries. Preserved on the walls of the wine press is a high-quality hydraulic mortar in multiple layers, the floor is laid with rectangular ceramic tiles in two layers, and the subfloor is made up of a layer of rubble with a durable mortar 20 inches thick, designed to withstand great pressure. The floor of the press slopes downward toward the opening of a ceramic pipe that leads to a rectangular reservoir-collection tank. The floor of this tank also slopes downward toward the opening of a second ceramic pipe Fig. 22 | Oblong building, probably an Early Christian storing space, in the area near Lake Karla in Thessaly. leading to another reservoir. The walls of the collection tank are also coated in a durable hydraulic mortar in multiple layers and the floor is covered with square ceramic tiles with a double X incised in the center. The entire installation was roofed, as indicated by the numerous roof tiles found during excavation.21 The design and construction of the Ambrossos wine press, with its large spaces and reservoirs bearing successive layers of waterproof mortar, appear to follow the established technological specifications of the time as described in the Geoponika of Kassianos Bassos.22 Indeed, the size of the main press-reservoir indicates that this too was an industrial installation capable of production in quantity, as confirmed by similar installations excavated in Greece. Moreover, the plain around Ambrossos, according to the description of Pausanias, was filled with vines, and until recently the region produced wine of good quality. Olive presses from the Byzantine period have been found in various locations in southern Greece, such as in the city and hinterland of medieval Sparta, one of the most flourishing cities of the Peloponnesos and a regional commercial center. Two olive presses of the eleventh–twelfth centuries have been uncovered in a settlement outside the walled core of Byzantine Lakedaimon,23 while many excavations in the city of Sparta have uncovered | 35 | Fig. 23 | Early Christian bishop’s complex at Louloudies near Kitros, with installations for the production of wine and oil (after Marki 2008). building remains in which portions of olive presses, such as their bases, were reused as building material. Older and newer finds of this nature document the importance of olive oil as a primary product of the wider region,24 and confirm that the southern Peloponnesos in the twelfth century was one of the largest producers of olive oil in the world.25 Large or small wine presses, olive presses, and agricultural installations with storage magazines have been found in many regions of the country, and are invaluable testimony to the dynamism of Byzantium’s agricultural economy.26 Most of these regions continue to maintain their agricultural character today, however some have completely renounced it. A characteristic example is the Mesogaia area of eastern Attica, whose fertile soil made it a vital supplier to Athens in antiquity, but which has been rapidly transformed in the past few decades from an agricultural area to an urban one. Excavations in Mesogaia, occasioned by intense building activity and the construction of two major projects, the International Airport of Athens and the Attica Tollway, have brought to light valuable evidence for the agricultural exploitation of the region in Byzantine times. Among the finds are large “granaries,” large ceramic storage jars, ceramic beehives, worked stones used in the processing of agricultural products, agricultural installations, and farmhouses.27 In western Attica, indeed on the congested main artery of Peiraios Street in Athens, in today’s densely populated western suburbs, three wine presses were recently discovered that saw continuous use from the eleventh to the fifteenth centuries.28 They bear witness to the | 36 | agricultural character of the surrounding area, something difficult to imagine today. One interesting and unusual find connected to the processing of agricultural products is a water mill excavated on the Kassandra Peninsula of Chalkidike, at the site of the sanctuary of Ammon Zeus.29 During research in the wider archaeological site, which includes the sanctuary, Roman baths, and a cave housing the sanctuary of Dionysos, a water mill—hydraletis—came to light. The mill is of the upright type with a vertical wheel and horizontal axle, similar to that of the Athenian Agora.30 In an elongated trench cut from the bedrock, the paddled wheel turned around a horizontal shaft whose ends were secured in two specially formed notches. In a small room next door, a smaller second wheel drove two horizontal millstones, most likely placed on a wooden platform. Fragments of millstones were found throughout the area. There are indications that the mill was used in two separate periods. It must have been constructed after the abandonment of the sanctuary, probably in the middle or late fourth century A.D., and remained in use through the fifth and sixth centuries. The exploitation of agricultural lands in the past is also related to the issue of land ownership, whether small or large, a subject of modern research. In Roman times it is known that the construction of luxurious villas or agricultural mansions was common, so that landowners, clearly with large holdings, could be close to and oversee the working of their farmlands. Similar villas continued to be used, with later interventions, and new ones erected, in the Early Byzantine period, following the prototype of Fig. 24 | Early Christian agricultural installation for the production of wine in Distomo, Boeotia. the villae rusticae or villae suburbanae of previous periods. In Greece such villas had been found during older research in Corinthia, the Argolid, and in Messenia,31 and they continue to be discovered in various regions of the country. In 2002 a large portion of a luxurious villa dating to the fifth century A.D. was excavated in Palaiokastro, to the north of Thessalonike.32 It was surrounded by a precinct wall, of which a four-sided tower was preserved, and had a court flanked by stoas on all sides, a triclinium (dining hall) with a square main hall and a semicircular niche to the north,33 and a pair of flanking rooms with mosaic floors to the east and west. The building complex also had a large outbuilding for storage space to the east, and a small cistern and bath on the south side. Small fragments of the mansion’s originally rich wall paintings had survived, imitating architectural forms, columns and marble revetments. The ornate mosaic floors were decorated with vines and various kinds of birds, geometric designs, and rectangular and octagonal scenes with a variety of subjects such as Leda and the Swan, a female dancer, a female figure with a veil, and a personification of the Echedoros (modern Gallikos) River, which flowed nearby. In eastern Macedonia a similar villa was found in 1995, and was fully excavated in the following decade, in a field in the village of Aggista, between the cities of Serres and Drama.34 This region, which in antiquity belonged to the territorium of Philippi, is near a tributary of the Strymon River and the ancient Via Egnatia. The villa covers an area of nearly 12,000 square feet (1,100 square meters) and includes the public spaces of the triclinium and atrium and a complex of auxiliary installations. The triclinium is made up of a large hall ending in a semicircular apse on the west, and is framed by five rooms and an octagonal tower on the southwest corner. The atrium is surrounded by three stoas, and the complex of auxiliary rooms is made up of six spaces of uneven size, each with a separate entrance. Most of the rooms had mosaic floors, which are poorly preserved but indicate a great variety of decorative subjects—interlocking circles that form quatrefoils, bands of the same width with different ornaments in each, overlapping squares surrounding multiple concentric octagons, kantharoi with ivy growing out of them, and a motif made up of a combination of Solomon knots and heraldic shields, among many others. The whole complex had three building phases. The destruction layer of the first phase dates to the reign of Hadrian (A.D. 117– 38). The second phase, which is the main period of use, dates to the fourth century A.D., while the buildings were also used during the Late Byzantine period. Another rural villa, also dating to the Early Byzantine period, was recently discovered in western Macedonia, in the agricultural area of Belbentos, Kozane (figs. 25–26). There is scant information for the Byzantine periods in this area, which is located in the watershed of the Haliakmon River. Revealed so far are the villa’s atrium, which is connected to various rooms by wide hallways, its triclinium, which does not have a semicircular apse, storage areas, and a wine press. The main spaces have complex, high-quality mosaic floors featuring a variety of decorative motifs. The floors of the hallways around the atrium | 37 | Fig. 25 | Mosaic floor of an Early Christian villa in Belbentos, Kozane. Fig. 26 | Ground plan of an Early Christian villa in Belbentos, Kozane, with mosaic floors. | 38 | and of the rest of the rooms are covered with ceramic tiles been discovered with building remains of industrial and workshop decorated with diagonal wavy lines. The entire building complex installations dating to the Middle Byzantine period, but of a has a sophisticated plumbing system and hypocausts for heating. smaller scale than that of the earlier villa. Based on the finds, the building was continuously used from the Countryside villas of the Early Byzantine period have also been fourth to the sixth centuries, at the end of which it was destroyed discovered in Crete, such as the complex in western Crete at Brysses, by fire.35 in Apokoronas, which had storage areas and workshops dating to In the Peloponnesos, with the opportunity presented during the end of the sixth and beginning of the seventh centuries,38 and in the construction of the new highway between Leuktron and southern Crete at the modern city of Moires, near Gortyn. The Sparta, a building complex was excavated which can also be excavated portion of the villa at Moires includes a bath, of which identified as a rural villa dating to the fifth–sixth centuries A.D.36 the three main halls were found as well as the corridor feeding the (fig. 27). The structure was found approximately 2½ miles (4 km) hypocaust. A court or residential area to the west of the bath was northwest of Sparta at the Ekklesies site, near Boutianoi, Lakonia, also discovered, as well as a long storage magazine, likely for the just a short distance to the east of the Eurotas River and beside the road connecting Sparta and northern Lakonia with Megalopole and southern Arkadia, a route used in both antiquity and Byzantine times. This road constitutes a portion of one of the most important routes, diagonally crossing the western Peloponnesos, joining Lakonia with Eleia (Olympia). The site of this building complex is also near a second road that leaves Sparta to the north (toward Arkadia/Tegea), which was part of the diagonal route crossing the eastern Peloponnesos.37 At this site intensive archaeological exploration over the past few years has brought to light numerous building remains, primarily of the Early Byzantine period, which include a large bath complex and part of a mosaic floor. The main part of the villa unearthed so far is square in plan, covers more than 4,000 square feet, and includes individual square rooms. Details of its construction indicate that there was a second story, while the spaces of the first floor appear to have been used for storage; in one of the rooms, five storage jars were preserved in situ. The villa rustica appears to have been part of a very large complex, according to the evidence gathered so far, as more buildings relating to it have been uncovered with storage and workshop areas, a wine press, and a lime kiln. It is interesting to note that there was a network of ceramic pipes and channels throughout the complex, carefully made of square ceramic tiles, which led water to the workshop areas. Two miles down the road toward Sparta, in an area that was intensively used in the Fig. 27 | Early Byzantine rural villa at the Ekklesies site, Lakonia. Early Christian period, another site has | 39 | Fig. 28 | Late Byzantine workshop for the production of building materials at the Tsikare site, Thessaly. storage of wine. Excavation data indicates that there was an initial phase of the bath dating to the fifth century, and a second building phase in the area of the residence that extended at least until the beginning of the seventh century. As excavations have not been completed, it is still uncertain whether or not the whole complex is part of a small village that developed on the periphery of Gortyn,39 the island’s most important city and capital throughout Late Antiquity until the Arab conquest in 824–27. These examples of rural villas from Macedonia, the Peloponnesos, and Crete, as well as other finds in Greece, date to the Early Byzantine period and appear to have survived until the sixth century and perhaps the beginning of the seventh.40 A twelfth-century farmstead discovered in Central Greece during improvements to the Kamena Bourla–Mendenitsa section of the highway between Athens and Thessalonike41 provides invaluable data for similar constructions in Greece during the Middle Byzantine period.42 Remains were found of a building complex with rooms arranged in two wings and a large courtyard bordered by a rough stone wall. The plan of the building is the result of two different building phases. To the first phase belongs a three-part rectangular structure,43 which in the second phase was | 40 | extended with the addition of rooms on the west and south and with the creation of the court, giving the structure its final form. The portion of the complex that has been excavated includes a large wine press with a collection tank, a workshop area, what was probably a tannery for the manufacture of wineskins, and rudimentary residential spaces. Recent excavations during the construction of new roads have uncovered two examples of an interesting category of workshop, one that produced building materials, as very few examples have been discovered to date in Greece. The kiln, whether used for baking bricks or roof tiles, is of substantial size, and its floor built in such a way as to withstand the weight of the materials to be fired. Brick-making facilities, due to their kilns and the space they occupied, had to be located outside cities, and were often found near city entrances, roads, rivers, or harbors to facilitate easy transportation. Typical examples from the Balkans are two similar complexes, one in Oltina, Romania, beside the Danube River, and one outside Prilep (in modern-day FYROM).44 A workshop for the production of building materials was recently uncovered less than a mile north of Sparta, near the modern settlement of Kokkinorache, during construction of the Fig. 29 | Kiln of the Late Byzantine workshop at the Tsikare site, Thessaly. new highway between Leuktron and Sparta.45 It comprises a large, rectangular, two-level kiln,46 the lower space for fuel and the upper one for firing. A rectangular building was also part of the complex, also of large size, which contained both enclosed and semi-enclosed spaces serving the workshop’s fabricating and storage needs. Ceramic pipes supplied the workshop with water, and it had a large rectangular water reservoir. The construction and use of the workshop date from the tenth to the twelfth century,47 and could be linked to the contemporary development of medieval Sparta, the “Lakedaimonia” of Byzantine texts.48 A second similar, but much larger, workshop was found at Tsikare in Thessaly during the construction of the new E 65 highway of Central Greece (fig. 28). The site is approximately 2½ miles (4 km) from Meteora, next to the Salambrias tributary of the Peneios River. This impressive industrial complex for the production of building materials covers more than 17,000 square feet, and has five large two-story ceramic kilns49 of a square plan (figs. 18, 29). The central support in each kiln’s fuel chamber created two parallel corridors that led to two vaulted passages for supplying the kiln with fuel.50 The corridors have brick vaulting that supports the overhead floor of the firing chamber.51 The construction of the complex dates to the Late Byzantine period, but it continued to be used into the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the heyday of the Meteora’s monasteries.52 The restructuring of urban life during the transition between Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages is one of the prime subjects of current research. Settlements of the Early Byzantine period crowded around fortified positions and ecclesiastical centers,53 while villages gradually transformed into important organizational features and became the primary tax units of the Byzantine state.54 The plethora of cemeteries and settlement remains known both from excavations and from surface surveys in mainland Greece and the islands precludes any listing in the present short overview. The overall picture that emerges from recent archaeological studies is that coastal cities remained densely settled until the sixth or middle of the seventh century, and that gradually small agricultural settlements increase throughout Late Antiquity.55 The cause of the increasing importance of large landholdings and the transformation of villages into large possessions of lay owners or monasteries beginning in the eleventh century is a puzzle to scholars.56 Surface surveys in several regions of Greece have indicated the sites of village settlements; for example, in Lakonia, in an area northeast of Sparta, sites the size of villages have been found dating from the ninth to the eighteenth century. Two of these were probably founded in the ninth century, or at least by the tenth century, and continued to exist during the Ottoman period, until the first half of the eighteenth century. Villages that were occupied only briefly have also been found.57 Future study of finds from excavations and their relation to the data gathered during surface surveys will aid in the creation of a map of Greece with a distribution of the various settlement units of the Byzantine era by period. In any case, it appears that villages continued to be the most important settlements during the Late Byzantine period as well, although their economic function is obscured by the role of large estates.58 Of the numerous coastal settlements of the Early Byzantine period, a good example is one currently being excavated in Epiros, on the Ladochori Plain east of the new harbor of Hegoumenitsa. The settlement was founded during the period of the Pax Romana, which favored the development of installations on the coast, and was destroyed in the mid-sixth century, most likely by the Ostrogoths of Totila. The section that has been uncovered reveals partially paved streets, houses of a rectangular plan with rooms arranged around open paved spaces, many with two stories, and a | 41 | | 42 | Fig. 30 | Ground plans of houses with many Late Byzantine granaries at the sites of Semantra and Kampoudi, Chalkidike. Fig. 31 | Early Byzantine ceramic workshop in Mastichari, Kos. few larger, wealthier ones with mosaic floors. Also unearthed are bath complexes, sections of a likely five-aisle basilica, and remains of harbor installations. Commercial traffic in the harbor was brisk, as indicated by the large number of coins and amphorae discovered.59 Of the short-lived settlements, two agricultural settlements of the thirteenth—fourteenth centuries are indicative (fig. 30). They were discovered in 2006 during work on a country road in Chalkidike, about which a wealth of study material is provided by the archives of the monasteries of Mt. Athos.60 One of them was found at the southern entrance of the modern settlement of Semantra, which is identified with the Byzantine village of Karkara, a name preserved until 1956. The village’s houses were loosely arranged on terraces, and a number of granaries were dug into the sides of the hill, bordered on the east and west by two gullies. A sizeable amount of slag and smaller artifacts of everyday life have been collected from this area, including coins from the thirteenth century, iron tools, arrowheads, some bronze and glass jewelry, as well as a large number of ceramics, of which an impressive number are glazed. The houses were far apart, as they were surrounded by roofed storerooms for grain and animal fodder, stables, open and partially enclosed work spaces, and vegetable gardens. Interestingly, no facilities for mining activities came to light, yet the thick layer of ash that covered part of the hill and the mass of slag are evidence enough of extensive secondary metallurgical activity in an area far removed from mining regions. This, in combination with the presence of a great quantity of glazed pottery and the large capacity of the granaries, has led the excavators to conclude that this was an unusually wealthy settlement.61 The second excavated village is in the area of Kampoudi. Its organization is analogous to that of the previous one, with houses set far apart, simple, one-room constructions surrounded by dugout granaries. Despite the similarities in the arrangement and form of its houses, this second village does not have any of the other characteristics of the first, such as a large quantity of glazed pottery and evidence of the secondary processing of metals. It is probably a typical agricultural village, which must have been developed at the end of the twelfth century and abandoned in the second half of the thirteenth. This typical picture of an agricultural production space is completed by a series of water mills that were developed along the Olynthios River near Kampoudi. The Byzantines, in addition to their use of overland routes, lived, fought, and traded at sea. The Aegean island chain connected Constantinople and the coast of Asia Minor by various commercial, military, and pilgrimage routes. From the earliest Christian times, pilgrims are known to have embarked from the harbors of the western Mediterranean and passed through those of the southern Peloponnesos, the Cycladic islands, Rhodes, and Cyprus, to reach the Holy Land.62 Innumerable sites have been excavated on the Greek islands that bear witness to habitation and commercial activities during the Byzantine period. Only a few of the more recent finds can be mentioned here. The small Dodekanese island of Leipsoi lies between Leros and Patmos, opposite the Ionian coast of Asia Minor. Near its coast a pottery factory was excavated in 2008–10.63 In the section excavated four kilns were revealed, each with a rectangular plan but of different dimensions, two storage spaces, intact amphorae, and a large number of sherds of a variety of types of vessels, the most important of which are twenty uniform amphorae.64 This regional ceramic workshop dates to the middle of the seventh century, a particularly turbulent period in the Aegean, while its ideal coastal location would have facilitated the immediate distribution of its products, especially since the island lies on the sea route to and from Constantinople. Together with finds from neighboring islands, in particular the large standing vaulted complex at the Tholoi site on Agathonesi,65 which has correctly been interpreted as a storage facility, it provides important evidence for further study of the role of the constellation of small islands in Byzantium’s maritime themata. Farther south the island of Kos, close to the coastline of Asia Minor, had a long tradition of ceramic production, and in particular the production of amphorae. Over the past thirty years more than 330 rescue excavations have been undertaken by the respective Ephorates of Antiquities, which have provided invaluable evidence for the study of Koan ceramics in the Late Antique and Early Byzantine periods. Among other finds, two ceramic workshops of the Early Byzantine period were found in coastal areas.66 One of the workshops was found near the modern village of Kardamaina —ancient Alasarna—on the south side of the island. This particular site is known as Tsoukalaria, Kaminia, and Liopyra, toponyms which denote ceramic workshops and olive presses, and where, until the mid 1950s, a traditional pottery workshop continued to exist. The Byzantine workshop produced cooking wares, perfume bottles, and wheel-made oil lamps, but the primary product was amphorae.67 According to the excavators, the workshop may date to the middle and second half of the seventh century, like the workshop on Leipsoi, perhaps into the eighth century. Further study of similar finds is particularly important as they relate to the abandonment of coastal settlements in the Aegean in response to the Arab threat. The second workshop was found in the north of the island at the site of Kostaina, near modern Mastichari (fig. 31). It is a large installation, in operation from the third to the seventh centuries, made up of four kilns of different types and auxiliary rooms. It produced mainly amphorae,68 oil lamps, and coarse ceramics. At the same time, it also produced building materials such as square bricks with fingerprint indentations and roof tiles. Misfired bricks were used to build the walls of the auxiliary rooms, while a large quantity of roof tiles produced at the site were also collected. One of the most interesting features of this workshop is the simultaneous use of different types of kilns to produce building materials as well as commercial amphorae. Finds from archaeological research in Greece, which are constantly being enriched, provide invaluable evidence of the development of the countryside and the evolution of the economy in the Byzantine state through its long history, both within Greece and beyond. Land use is similar throughout the eastern Mediterranean, the relationship between villages and large land holdings was everywhere similar, and overland and sea trading routes were of paramount importance to every part of the empire. 1 Avramea 2002. See the bibliography for the Roman and Early Byzantine periods in Avramea 1996. 3 Adam-Veleni 2003. 4 Koder and Hild 1976, 90–100; Avramea 1974, 71–117. 5 Marki 1991. 6 The building is 88 feet long and 22 feet wide. 7 Marki 1991. 8 Sdrolia and Androudis 2012. 9 Anna Komnene 2001, 154. 10 Decourt 1990, 95, 107ff. 11 For ancient Meliboia, see Drosos 1997, 15ff. 12 Sdrolia 2003, 406, figs. 4–5. For the monasteries of Kissabos, see Mamaloukos and Sdrolia 2006. 13 Koder and Hild 1976, 252. 14 Dina 2003; Dina et al. 2001–4; Deriziotis and Dina 2012, 169. 15 Laiou 2002a, 319. 16 The fortified group was founded at the site of a way station along the road between Thessalonike and Tempe, probably at the site of the mansio or mutatio Anamon: Marki 2008. 2 17 In a rectangular space measuring 34 x 17 feet (10.40 x 5.30 m) a system of three wine press-reservoirs and two collection tanks was created. The two parallel storage magazines measure 68 x 17 feet (20.70 x 5.30 m), and the third measures 68 x 13 feet (20.50 x 3.90 m). 18 Marki 2008; Cheimonopoulou 2004. 19 Pausanias 1990, 179–80. X, 36,1. 20 The dimensions of the reservoir-press are 21 x 15 feet (6.50 x 4.50 m), and of the collection tank 6 x 3 feet (1.80 x 0.90 m). 21 Gerousi 2007. 22 Kassianos Bassos 1895, Book 6, Ch. 1,3. 23 Bakourou et al. 1998, 221; Bakourou 2009, 307–10. 24 Mexia 2006b. 25 Kazhdan and Nesbitt 1991. 26 Cheimonopoulou 2004. 27 Ghini-Tsofopoulou 2001, mainly 151, 168, 183; Pantelidou-Alexiadou 2005a; Pantelidou-Alexiadou 2005b. 28 Ghini-Tsofopoulou et al. 2012, 35–36. 29 Tsigarida et al. 2007, 327–28, fig. 11. 30 Parsons 1936; Spain 1987. 31 Morrisson and Sodini 2002, 177, with relevant bibliography. 32 Marki 2010. 33 In the northeastern section of Early Christian Thessalonike an important number of luxurious private houses have been discovered, the plans of which include triclinia, dating to the end of the fourth and beginning of the fifth centuries. 34 Tsouris et al. 1999, 726–27; Tsouris et al. 2000, 906–7; Tsouris et al. 2001–4, 762, 804. 35 Tsiapali 2008; Tsiapali 2011. 36 Eleftheriou and Skagkos 2012. 37 Kourinou 2000, 70. 38 Andrianakis 2012b, 338. 39 Sythiakakis and Vassilakis 2010. 40 Morrisson and Sodini 2002, 177; according to Sodini, similar villas are rare in the sixth century. 41 Gialouri 2006. 42 For the agricultural economy in general, see Lefort 2002, especially 240–41. 43 Dimensions: 47 x 17 feet (14.30 x 5.20 m). 44 Ousterhout 1999, 128–32; Theocharidou 1985–86, 97–112, and fig. 15, where the experienced architect created a typological classification of kilns. 45 See the aforementioned rural villa at Ekklesies near Boutianoi, Lakonia. 46 Dimensions: 20 x 8 feet (6.14 x 2.42 m). 47 Armeni et al. 2012. 48 Laiou 2002b, 747–48. 49 The dimensions of the five kilns are as follows: A: 10½ x 9 feet (3.18 x 2.80 m); B: 12 x c. 7 feet (3.65 x c. 2.23 m; partially preserved); C: 10 x 8 feet (3 x 2.54 m); D: 12 x 10 feet (3.74 x 3 m); E: 13 x 11½ feet (3.90 x 3.50 m). 50 Their width varies from 20 to 25 inches (0.50 to 0.65 m), their height from 12 to 21 ½ inches (0.30 to 0.55 m), while the distance between them varies from 23 to 27 inches (0.60 to 0.70 m). 51 Type ∫Ë according to the typology of Theocharidou 1985–86, fig. 15 (see note 44). Ovens with two supply openings exist from Roman times, Cuomo di Caprio 1979, plans 5.2 and 5.7. 52 I thank the Director of the 19th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities, K. Mantzana, who will publish the complex, for sharing her information and photographs. 53 Brogiolo and Ward-Perkins 1999; Dunn 1994. 54 Kaplan 1992; Wickham 2005, 442–518. 55 Morrisson and Sodini 2002,175–81. 56 Lefort 2002, 284–90. 57 Armstrong 2002. 58 Laiou 2002a, 317–19. 59 I thank B. Papadopoulou, Director of the 8th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities, for providing the evidence from her dissertation on Early Christian Epiros (4th–7th c.). 60 Laiou 2002a, 326–28. 61 Tsanana et al. 2013. 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